[Corrigendum] Constitutive activation of MAPK/ERK inhibits prostate cancer cell proliferation through upregulation of BRCA2.

After the publication of the article the authors noted the following errors in the assembling of the figures. In Fig. 3A the tubulin panel for PC-3 cells is incorrect. The correct panel is reported below. In Figs. 3B and 5B the panels are incorrect. The correct panels are shown below. These changes do not affect the interpretation of the data or conclusions of this work [the original article was published in the International Journal of Oncology 30: 217-224, 2007; DOI: 10.3892/ijo.30.1.217].

Silencing of BRCA2 decreases anoikis and its heterologous expression sensitizes yeast cells to acetic acid-induced programmed cell death.

Adhesion of normal epithelial cells to the extracellular matrix (ECM) is essential for survival. Cell detachment from ECM induces a specific form of programmed cell death (PCD) termed anoikis. BRCA2, a tumor suppressor gene whose mutations confer predisposition to cancer, has been implicated in the regulation of DNA repair, transcription, cell proliferation, and apoptosis. However, the potential role of BRCA2 in the regulation of anoikis has not been investigated. Here, we found that suppression of BRCA2 expression by short hairpin RNA promoted resistance to anoikis in prostate, breast and thyroid normal epithelial cells, which was accompanied by reduced caspases 3/7 levels and activity. Using yeast as a model, we assessed that expression of human BRCA2 does not induce cell death by itself but it can promote acetic acid-induced PCD (AA-PCD). Induction of BRCA2 expression decreased cell survival and increased the number of cells positive to different apoptotic markers, including DNA fragmentation and phosphatidylserine externalization en route to AA-PCD. A higher increase in ROS levels occurred in the early phase of AA-PCD in BRCA2-expressing yeast cells compared with non-expressing cells. Accordingly, a delay in the initial burst of ROS levels was observed in BRCA2-knockdown anoikis-resistant human cells. Treatment with the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine or ascorbic acid reduced sensitivity to anoikis in human cells and inhibited AA-PCD in yeast cells expressing BRCA2. Taken together, these results show a new function of BRCA2 protein as modulator of anoikis sensitivity through an evolutionarily-conserved molecular mechanism involving regulation of ROS production and/or detoxification by BRCA2 during PCD processes.

Yeast growth in raffinose results in resistance to acetic-acid induced programmed cell death mostly due to the activation of the mitochondrial retrograde pathway.

In order to investigate whether and how a modification of mitochondrial metabolism can affect yeast sensitivity to programmed cell death (PCD) induced by acetic acid (AA-PCD), yeast cells were grown on raffinose, as a sole carbon source, which, differently from glucose, favours mitochondrial respiration. We found that, differently from glucose-grown cells, raffinose-grown cells were mostly resistant to AA-PCD and that this was due to the activation of mitochondrial retrograde (RTG) response, which increased with time, as revealed by the up-regulation of the peroxisomal isoform of citrate synthase and isocitrate dehydrogenase isoform 1, RTG pathway target genes. Accordingly, the deletion of RTG2 and RTG3, a positive regulator and a transcription factor of the RTG pathway, resulted in AA-PCD, as shown by TUNEL assay. Neither deletion in raffinose-grown cells of HAP4, encoding the positive regulatory subunit of the Hap2,3,4,5 complex nor constitutive activation of the RTG pathway in glucose-grown cells due to deletion of MKS1, a negative regulator of RTG pathway, had effect on yeast AA-PCD. The RTG pathway was found to be activated in yeast cells containing mitochondria, in which membrane potential was measured, capable to consume oxygen in a manner stimulated by the uncoupler CCCP and inhibited by the respiratory chain inhibitor antimycin A. AA-PCD resistance in raffinose-grown cells occurs with a decrease in both ROS production and cytochrome c release as compared to glucose-grown cells en route to AA-PCD.

Molecular mechanisms of Saccharomyces cerevisiae stress adaptation and programmed cell death in response to acetic acid.

Beyond its classical biotechnological applications such as food and beverage production or as a cell factory, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a valuable model organism to study fundamental mechanisms of cell response to stressful environmental changes. Acetic acid is a physiological product of yeast fermentation and it is a well-known food preservative due to its antimicrobial action. Acetic acid has recently been shown to cause yeast cell death and aging. Here we shall focus on the molecular mechanisms of S. cerevisiae stress adaptation and programmed cell death in response to acetic acid. We shall elaborate on the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the cross-talk of pro-survival and pro-death pathways underlying the importance of understanding fundamental aspects of yeast cell homeostasis to improve the performance of a given yeast strain in biotechnological applications.

The N-acetylcysteine-insensitive acetic acid-induced yeast programmed cell death occurs without macroautophagy.

Programmed cell death can occur through two separate pathways caused by treatment of Saccharomyces cerevisiae with acetic acid (AA-PCD), which differ from one another essentially with respect to their sensitivity to N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and to the role played by cytochrome c and metacaspase YCA1. Moreover, yeast can also undergo macroautophagy which occurs in NAC-insensitive manner. In order to gain some insight into the relationship between AA-PCD and macroautophagy use was made of WT and knock-out cells lacking YCA1 and/or cytochrome c. We show that i. macroautophagy is modulated by YCA1 and by cytochrome c in a negative and positive manner, respectively, ii. the NAC-insensitive AA-PCD and macroautophagy differ from one another and iii. NAC-insensitive AA-PCD pathway takes place essentially without macroautophagy, even if the shift of extracellular pH to acidic values required for AA-PCD to occur leads itself to increased or decreased macroautophagy in YCA1 or cytochrome c-lacking cells.

The role of mitochondria in yeast programmed cell death.

Mammalian apoptosis and yeast programmed cell death (PCD) share a variety of features including reactive oxygen species production, protease activity and a major role played by mitochondria. In view of this, and of the distinctive characteristics differentiating yeast and multicellular organism PCD, the mitochondrial contribution to cell death in the genetically tractable yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been intensively investigated. In this mini-review we report whether and how yeast mitochondrial function and proteins belonging to oxidative phosphorylation, protein trafficking into and out of mitochondria, and mitochondrial dynamics, play a role in PCD. Since in PCD many processes take place over time, emphasis will be placed on an experimental model based on acetic acid-induced PCD (AA-PCD) which has the unique feature of having been investigated as a function of time. As will be described there are at least two AA-PCD pathways each with a multifaceted role played by mitochondrial components, in particular by cytochrome c.

Yeast as a tool to study signaling pathways in mitochondrial stress response and cytoprotection.

Cell homeostasis results from the balance between cell capability to adapt or succumb to environmental stress. Mitochondria, in addition to supplying cellular energy, are involved in a range of processes deciding about cellular life or death. The crucial role of mitochondria in cell death is well recognized. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been associated with the death process and the onset of numerous diseases. Yet, mitochondrial involvement in cellular adaptation to stress is still largely unexplored. Strong interest exists in pharmacological manipulation of mitochondrial metabolism and signaling. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven a valuable model organism in which several intracellular processes have been characterized in great detail, including the retrograde response to mitochondrial dysfunction and, more recently, programmed cell death. In this paper we review experimental evidences of mitochondrial involvement in cytoprotection and propose yeast as a model system to investigate the role of mitochondria in the cross-talk between prosurvival and prodeath pathways.

Achievements and perspectives in yeast acetic acid-induced programmed cell death pathways.

The use of non-mammalian model organisms, including yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, can provide new insights into eukaryotic PCD (programmed cell death) pathways. In the present paper, we report recent achievements in the elucidation of the events leading to PCD that occur as a response to yeast treatment with AA (acetic acid). In particular, ROS (reactive oxygen species) generation, cyt c (cytochrome c) release and mitochondrial function and proteolytic activity will be dealt with as they vary along the AA-PCD time course by using both wild-type and mutant yeast cells. Two AA-PCD pathways are described sharing common features, but distinct from one another with respect to the role of ROS and mitochondria, the former in which YCA1 acts upstream of cyt c release and caspase-like activation in a ROS-dependent manner and the latter in which cyt c release does not occur, but caspase-like activity increases, in a ROS-independent manner.

Cytochrome c Trp65Ser substitution results in inhibition of acetic acid-induced programmed cell death in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

To gain further insight into the role of cytochrome c (cyt c) in yeast programmed cell death induced by acetic acid (AA-PCD), comparison was made between wild type and two mutant cells, one lacking cyt c and the other (W65Scyc1) expressing a mutant iso-1-cyt c in a form unable to reduce cyt c oxidase, with respect to occurrence of AA-PCD, cyt c release, ROS production and caspase-like activity. We show that in W65Scyc1 cells: i. no release of mutant cyt c occurs with inhibition of W65Scyc1 cell AA-PCD shown to be independent on impairment of electron flow, ii. there is a decrease in ROS production and an increase in caspase-like activity. We conclude that cyt c release does not depend on cyt c function as an electron carrier and that when still associated to the mitochondrial membrane, cyt c in its reduced form has a role in AA-PCD, by regulating ROS production and caspase-like activity.

The rate of ATP export in the extramitochondrial phase via the adenine nucleotide translocator changes in aging in mitochondria isolated from heart left ventricle of either normotensive or spontaneously hypertensive rats.

To find out whether and how deficit of cellular energy supply from mitochondria to cytosol occurs in aging and hypertension, we used mitochondria isolated from 5 to 72 week-old heart left ventricle of either normotensive (WKY) or spontaneous hypertensive (SH) rats as a model system. Measurements were made of the rate of ATP appearance outside mitochondria, due to externally added ADP, as an increase of NADPH absorbance which occurs when ATP is produced in the presence of glucose, hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Such a rate proved to mirror the function of the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) rather than other processes linked to the both oxidative and substrate level phosphorylation. The changes in both Ki for atractyloside and Km for ADP suggest the occurrence of modification of the ANT conformation during aging in which the ANT Vmax was found to decrease in normotensive but to increase under spontaneously hypertension in 24 week-old rats with a subsequent decrease in both cases. ANT function, as investigated in the ADP physiological range (20-60µM), is expected to decrease in normotensive, but to increase in hypertensive rats up to 48 weeks. Later a decrease in the ATP rate of export outside mitochondria should occur in both cases.

Skp2 overexpression is associated with loss of BRCA2 protein in human prostate cancer.

BRCA2 (breast cancer 2, early onset) is a tumor suppressor gene that confers increased susceptibility for prostate cancer (PCa). Previous in vitro experiments demonstrated that Skp2, an E3 ubiquitin ligase aberrantly overexpressed in PCa, is involved in the proteolytic degradation of BRCA2 in PCa cells, suggesting that the BRCA2-Skp2 interaction may play a role in prostate tumorigenesis. Herein, we investigated BRCA2 and Skp2 expression during PCa development using a prostate TMA. Although luminal and basal benign prostate epithelium exhibited moderate to strong nuclear BRCA2 immunostaining, the intensity and number of positive nuclei decreased significantly in high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and PCa. Decreased frequency and intensity of nuclear BRCA2 labeling were inversely correlated with Skp2 expression in high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and PCa. To functionally assess the effects of BRCA2 and Skp2 expression on prostate malignant transformation, we overexpressed Skp2 in normal immortalized prostate cells. Skp2 overexpression reduced BRCA2 protein and promoted cell growth and migration. A similar phenotype was observed after reduction of BRCA2 protein levels using specific BRCA2 small-interfering RNA. Forced BRCA2 expression in Skp2-overexpressing stable transfectants inhibited the migratory and growth properties by >60%. These results show that loss of BRCA2 expression during prostate tumor development is strongly correlated with both migratory behavior and cancer growth and include Skp2 as a BRCA2 proteolytic partner in vivo.

Deficit of complex I activity in human skin fibroblasts with chromosome 21 trisomy and overproduction of reactive oxygen species by mitochondria: involvement of the cAMP/PKA signalling pathway.

DS (Down's syndrome) is the most common human aneuploidy associated with mental retardation and early neurodegeneration. Mitochondrial dysfunction has emerged as a crucial factor in the pathogenesis of numerous neurological disorders including DS, but the cause of mitochondrial damage remains elusive. In the present study, we identified new molecular events involved in mitochondrial dysfunction which could play a role in DS pathogenesis. We analysed mitochondrial respiratory chain function in DS-HSFs (Down's syndrome human foetal skin fibroblasts; human foetal skin fibroblasts with chromosome 21 trisomy) and found a selective deficit in the catalytic efficiency of mitochondrial complex I. The complex I deficit was associated with a decrease in cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of the 18 kDa subunit of the complex, due to a decrease in PKA (protein kinase A) activity related to reduced basal levels of cAMP. Consistently, exposure of DS-HSFs to db-cAMP (dibutyryl-cAMP), a membrane-permeable cAMP analogue, stimulated PKA activity and consequently rescued the deficit of both the cAMP-dependent phosphorylation and the catalytic activity of complex I; conversely H89, a specific PKA inhibitor, suppressed these cAMP-dependent activations. Furthermore, in the present paper we report a 3-fold increase in cellular levels of ROS (reactive oxygen species), in particular superoxide anion, mainly produced by DS-HSF mitochondria. ROS accumulation was prevented by db-cAMP-dependent activation of complex I, suggesting its involvement in ROS production. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that the drastic decrease in basal cAMP levels observed in DS-HSFs participates in the complex I deficit and overproduction of ROS by DS-HSF mitochondria.

L-lactate metabolism can occur in normal and cancer prostate cells via the novel mitochondrial L-lactate dehydrogenase.

Both normal (PTN1A) and cancer (PC3) prostate cells produce high levels of L-lactate because of a low energy supply via the citric cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Since some mammalian mitochondria possess a mitochondrial L-lactate dehydrogenase (mLDH), we investigated whether prostate cells can take up L-lactate and metabolize it in the mitochondria. We report here that externally added L-lactate can enter both normal and cancer cells and mitochondria, as shown by both the oxygen consumption and by the increase in fluorescence of NAD(P)H which occur as a result of L-lactate addition. In both cell types L-lactate enters mitochondria in a carrier-mediated manner, as shown by the inhibition of swelling measurements due to the non-penetrant thiol reagent mersalyl. An L-lactate dehydrogenase exists in mitochondria of both cell types located in the inner compartment, as shown by kinetic investigation and by immunological analysis. The mLDHs proved to differ from the cytosolic enzymes (which themselves differ from one another) as functionally investigated with respect to kinetic features and pH profile. Normal and cancer cells were found to differ from one another with respect to mLDH protein level and activity, being the enzyme more highly expressed and of higher activity in PC3 cells. Moreover, the kinetic features and pH profiles of the PC3 mLDH also differ from those of the PNT1A enzyme, this suggesting the occurrence of separate isoenzymes.

Alzheimer's proteins, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction interplay in a neuronal model of Alzheimer's disease.

In this paper, we discuss the interplay between beta-amyloid (Aß) peptide, Tau fragments, oxidative stress, and mitochondria in the neuronal model of cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) in which the molecular events reminiscent of AD are activated. The identification of the death route and the cause/effect relationships between the events leading to death could be helpful to manage the progression of apoptosis in neurodegeneration and to define antiapoptotic treatments acting on precocious steps of the death process. Mitochondrial dysfunction is among the earliest events linked to AD and might play a causative role in disease onset and progression. Recent studies on CGNs have shown that adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) impairment, due to interaction with toxic N-ter Tau fragment, contributes in a significant manner to bioenergetic failure and mitochondrial dysfunction. These findings open a window for new therapeutic strategies aimed at preserving and/or improving mitochondrial function.

Knock-out of metacaspase and/or cytochrome c results in the activation of a ROS-independent acetic acid-induced programmed cell death pathway in yeast.

To gain further insight into yeast acetic acid-induced programmed cell death (AA-PCD) we analyzed the effects of the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) on cell viability, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) production, DNA fragmentation, cytochrome c (cyt c) release and caspase-like activation in wild type (wt) and metacaspase and/or cyt c-lacking cells. We found that NAC prevents AA-PCD in wt cells, by scavenging H(2)O(2) and by inhibiting both cyt c release and caspase-like activation. This shows the occurrence of a reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent AA-PCD. Contrarily no NAC dependent change in AA-PCD of mutant cells was detectable, showing that a ROS-independent AA-PCD can also occur.

Impairment of F1F0-ATPase, adenine nucleotide translocator and adenylate kinase causes mitochondrial energy deficit in human skin fibroblasts with chromosome 21 trisomy.

A central role for mitochondrial dysfunction has been proposed in the pathogenesis of DS (Down's syndrome), a multifactorial disorder caused by trisomy of human chromosome 21. To explore whether and how abnormalities in mitochondrial energy metabolism are involved in DS pathogenesis, we investigated the catalytic properties, gene expression and protein levels of certain proteins involved in mitochondrial ATP synthesis, such as F1F0-ATPase, ANT (adenine nucleotide translocator) and AK (adenylate kinase), in DS-HSF (human skin fibroblasts with trisomic karyotype), comparing them with euploid fibroblasts. In DS-HSF, we found a strong impairment of mitochondrial ATP synthesis due to a reduction in the catalytic efficiency of each of the investigated proteins. This impairment occurred in spite of unchanged gene expression and an increase in ANT and AK protein content, whereas the amount of ATPase subunits was selectively reduced. Interestingly, exposure of DS-HSF to dibutyryl-cAMP, a permanent derivative of cAMP, stimulated ANT, AK and ATPase activities, whereas H89, a specific PKA (protein kinase A) inhibitor, suppressed this cAMPdependent activation, indicating an involvement of the cAMP/PKA-mediated signalling pathway in the ATPase, ANT and AK deficit. Consistently, DS-HSF showed decreased basal levels of cAMP and reduced PKA activity. Despite the impairment of mitochondrial energy apparatus, no changes in cellular energy status, but increased basal levels of L-lactate, were found in DS-HSF, which partially offset for the mitochondrial energy deficit by increasing glycolysis and mitochondrial mass.These results provide new insight into the molecular basis for mitochondrial dysfunction in DS and might provide a molecular explanation for some clinical features of the syndrome.

Yeast acetic acid-induced programmed cell death can occur without cytochrome c release which requires metacaspase YCA1.

To investigate the role of cytochrome c (cyt c) release in yeast acetic acid-induced programmed cell death (AA-PCD), wild type (wt) and cells lacking metacaspase (Deltayca1), cytochrome c (Deltacyc1,7) and both (Deltacyc1,7Deltayca1) were compared for AA-PCD occurrence, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) production and caspase activity. AA-PCD occurs in Deltacyc1,7 and Deltacyc1,7Deltayca1 cells slower than in wt, but similar to that in Deltayca1 cells, in which no cytochrome c release occurs. Both H(2)O(2) production and caspase activation occur in these cells with early and extra-activation in Deltacyc1,7 cells. We conclude that alternative death pathways can be activated in yeast AA-PCD, one dependent on cyt c release, which requires YCA1, and the other(s) independent on it.

Mitochondrial DNA depletion reduces PARP-1 levels and promotes progression of the neoplastic phenotype in prostate carcinoma.

Mitochondrial dysfunction resulting from mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations and/or depletion has been correlated with cancer progression and drug resistance. To investigate the role of mtDNA in prostate cancer progression, we used LNCaP and PC-3 prostate carcinoma cells as experimental model. Compared to minimally invasive androgen-dependent LNCaP cells, highly invasive androgen-independent PC-3 cells, as well as androgen-independent DU145 and C4-2 cells, exhibited significantly reduced mtDNA content. In PC-3 cells, reduction of mtDNA was accompanied by decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (DeltaPsi(m)), increased migration onto the basement membrane protein laminin-1, reduced chemosensitivity to paclitaxel (IC(50)=110 nM vs. 22 nM) and decreased expression of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)-1. To investigate the relationship between mtDNA depletion and these phenotypic characteristics, we established mtDNA-depleted LNCaP cells [Rho(-)] by long-term exposure to ethidium bromide or treated wild-type LNCaP cells with a mitochondrial ionophore, carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone. Both manipulations resulted in DeltaPsi(m) loss, acquisition of invasive cytology, increased motility onto laminin-1, reduced sensitivity to paclitaxel (IC(50)= approximately 100 nM) and approximately 75% reduction in PARP-1 protein levels, resembling PC-3 cells. Overall, these results provide novel evidence demonstrating that mtDNA depletion in early prostate carcinoma may contribute to the acquisition of a more invasive phenotype that is less sensitive to paclitaxel-induced apoptosis.

Molecular evolution of B6 enzymes: binding of pyridoxal-5'-phosphate and Lys41Arg substitution turn ribonuclease A into a model B6 protoenzyme.

BACKGROUND: The pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent or vitamin B6-dependent enzymes that catalyze manifold reactions in the metabolism of amino acids belong to no fewer than four evolutionarily independent protein families. The multiple evolutionary origin and the essential mechanistic role of PLP in these enzymes argue for the cofactor having arrived on the evolutionary scene before the emergence of the respective apoenzymes and having played a dominant role in the molecular evolution of the B6 enzyme families. Here we report on an attempt to re-enact the emergence of a PLP-dependent protoenzyme. The starting protein was pancreatic ribonuclease A (RNase), in which active-site Lys41 or Lys7 readily form a covalent adduct with PLP. RESULTS: We screened the PLP adduct of wild-type RNase and two variant RNases (K7R and K41R) for catalytic effects toward L- and D-amino acids. RNase(K41R)-PLP, in which the cofactor is bound through an imine linkage to Lys7, qualifies for a model proto-B6 enzyme by the following criteria: (1) covalent linkage of PLP (internal aldimine); (2) catalytic activity toward amino acids that depends on formation of an imine linkage with the substrate (external aldimine); (3) adjoining binding sites for the cofactor and amino acid moiety that facilitate the transimination reaction of the internal to the external aldimine and stabilize the resulting noncovalent complex of the coenzyme-substrate adduct with the protein; (4) reaction specificity, the only detectable reactions being racemization of diverse amino acids and beta-decarboxylation of L-aspartate; (5) acceleration factors for racemization and beta-decarboxylation of >103 over and above that of PLP alone; (6) ribonuclease activity that is 103-fold lower than that of wild-type RNase, attenuation of a pre-existing biological activity being indispensable for the further evolution as a PLP-dependent protoenzyme. CONCLUSION: A single amino acid substitution (Lys41Arg) and covalent binding of PLP to active-site Lys7 suffice to turn pancreatic ribonuclease A into a protein catalyst that complies with all plausible criteria for a proto-B6 enzyme. The study thus retraces in a model system what may be considered the committed step in the molecular evolution of a potential ancestor of a B6 enzyme family.

Different sources of reactive oxygen species contribute to low potassium-induced apoptosis in cerebellar granule cells.

An early increase in ROS production is characteristic of cerebellar granule cells undergoing apoptosis in the presence of 5 mM KCl. However, the sources of this increase have not been investigated in detail. In particular whether there is a single enzymatic source or the increase in ROS production is the consequence of the involvement of different enzymes has not been studied in depth. Different enzymatic pathways may indeed contribute to the up-regulation of intracellular ROS production either directly or via side-chain reactions and a number of candidate enzymes are known to be involved in the apoptotic process in various cell types. The aim of this study was to identify the cellular sources of the ROS generated by CGCs undergoing apoptosis by low K+. A panel of specific inhibitors against phospholipase, cytochromes P450, cyclooxygenase, lipoxygenase, xanthine oxidase, ribonucleotide reductase and NADPH oxidase were used. We provide evidence that no single source of ROS can be identified in apoptotic CGCs, but the ROS generated through the arachidonic acid (AA) pathways, mainly via lipoxygenase activities, seems to be the most prominent.